Tel Office: +254 (0)20 – 2020505/10 Mobile: +254 (0)728 - 669000 (0)736 - 424440 UN P A U L ’ S Private Bag 00217 LIMURU, KENYA Email: distancelearning@spu.ac.ke Website: www.spu.ac.ke . S T I VE R S I TY SE R TY VANT S OF GO D AND HUMANI [NELSON KARANJA] ST. PAUL’S UNIVERSITY SPU Distance Learning Course Handbook UCC 104: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES [NELLY MUKAMI] SPU Distance & E - Learning Program © 2016 _________________________________________ i Reviewed & Edited by: Design & layout by: ISBN: ©St. Paul’s University Publication (or Press) Private Bag 00-----Limuru, Kenya Website http://www.spu.ac.org © [Nelly Njiru] Revised Edition (January, 2016). Acknowledgements ii CONTENTS CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................. iii COURSE OUTLINE: ..................................................................................................................................... 1 COURSE CONTENT:.................................................................................................................................... 1 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION .................................................................................................................. 2 CONTACT INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................ 2 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES ............................. 3 Introduction to Environment .................................................................................................................. 3 Definition of Environment ....................................................................................................................... 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THEM. ......................... 5 TOPIC 2: NATURAL RESOURCES ...........................................................................................................16 CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES ............................................................................17 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES ..................................................................................................18  FOREST RESOURCES .................................................................................................................18 General Importance of Natural Resources ............................................................................................25 TOPIC 3: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS ....................................................................................26 3.1 Causes of Environmental Crisis .......................................................................................................26 2. OZONE LAYER DEPLETION .........................................................................................................28 Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) .............................................................................................28 3. GREENHOUSE EFFECT ..................................................................................................................30 5. CLIMATE CHANGE..........................................................................................................................32 Impacts of climate change ...................................................................................................................33 ADDRESSING GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE .............................................35 a) Air Pollution ...............................................................................................................................37 Types of water pollution......................................................................................................................39 Biological Water Pollution ....................................................................................................................39 Oxygen Depletion ..................................................................................................................................39 Nutrients ................................................................................................................................................39 Chemical ................................................................................................................................................40 Suspended Matter ..................................................................................................................................40 h) Visual Pollution ..........................................................................................................................43 Causes of Deforestation ...........................................................................................................................45 Effects of Deforestation ...........................................................................................................................46 Solutions to Deforestation .......................................................................................................................47 TOPIC 4: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) ....................................................................................48 Definition ..................................................................................................................................................48 iii DIMENSIONS/ PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ..................................................48 Goals for Sustainable Human Development .............................................................................................51 MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS ............................................................................................53 BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT TO ANY ECONOMY .....................................55 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA .....................................................................................55 Characteristics of Poor................................................................................................................................62 DIMENSIONS/ MEASURES OF POVERTY (Monetary and Non-monetary Measures) ...................63 Causes of poverty.........................................................................................................................................63 Consequences of Poverty.........................................................................................................................64 TOPIC 5: INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................................67 Objectives: .....................................................................................................................................................67 INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS ...............................................................................................................69 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE .............................................................................................................69 IK and biodiversity conservation ...........................................................................................................71 IK and environmental Conservation in Kenya .....................................................................................72 Roles of local and indigenous knowledge in addressing climate change .............................................72 The role of women ...................................................................................................................................75 Limitations of indigenous knowledge.....................................................................................................76 FORMAL INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES ......................................................................................................................82 Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework governing Environmental Management in Kenya.......82 Policies, institutions and natural resource management ......................................................................83 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN KENYA .............................................................................................85 Institutions under EMCA ...................................................................................................................86 Role of EMCA 1999 in Environment Management in Kenya .........................................................88 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .........................................................................................90 National Environmental Management Authority .............................................................................97 The Green Belt Movement ................................................................................................................101 United Nations Environment Program ............................................................................................103 TOPIC 6: ECONOMICS OF POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT .....................................................106 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION ........................................................................................................111 Stages of Demographic Transition .......................................................................................................111 CAUSES OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH ..............................................................................114 Effects of Overpopulation .....................................................................................................................115 Effects of population growth on the environment ..............................................................................117 Solutions to Overpopulation .................................................................................................................118 Population and sustainable development ............................................................................................119 Demographic Dynamics and Sustainability ........................................................................................121 POPULATION CONTROL ........................................................................................................................124 iv Population Control ................................................................................................................................124 Suggested Population Control Measures at Individual, National and International Levels ..........126 TOPIC 7: NATURAL RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.....................................131 Management and Conservation............................................................................................................131 Property regimes ...................................................................................................................................133 Conservation measures .........................................................................................................................135 Biodiversity ........................................................................................................................................135 Energy conservation ..........................................................................................................................138 Forests.................................................................................................................................................141 Wildlife conservation .........................................................................................................................143 Watersheds .........................................................................................................................................146 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................152 v COURSE OUTLINE: Purpose of the Course To enable students have a foundational understanding of environmental issues and their effect on sustainable development. Course Objectives By the end of this course the learners should be able to: 1. Conceptualize Environment, Natural Resources and Sustainable Development. 2. Delve deep into current environmental problems facing the world today and the measures needed to mitigate and remedy some of those problems. 3. Apply the tools used in environmental management. COURSE CONTENT: WEEK TOPIC / SUB- TOPIC Week 1 Week 2 REGISTRATION and ORIENTATION 1. Introduction to Environment  Definitions  Types of environment  Components of the environment. 2. Natural Resources  Types of natural resources.  Natural resource conservation and management. CAT 3. Sustainable development in Kenya  Equity  Growth  Food security 4. Global Environmental Crisis  Natural systems  Social systems 5. Environmental Management  Definitions  Institutional & legal framework for the management of natural resources 6. CAT Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 1 Week 10 7.Economics of poverty  Poverty and environment:  poverty-environment dynamics Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 7. Population and Environment  Economics of population and environment  Population Control 8. Theory of demographic transition. EXAMS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION [Insert additional information, specific to degree program e.g. BBA, BACom Dev, BALM. As indicated in SPU Degree curriculum] CONTACT INFORMATION    Nelly Njiru, Lecturer Mobile Number: 0722 288 734 asp0223@spu.ac.ke 2 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES Objectives: The learner should be able to: a. Define Environment b.Identify the various environmental systems and explain how they interact. c. Identify the various types of natural resources d.Explain the importance of natural resources Introduction to Environment Environmental study is a multidisciplinary subject that can make us conscious and caring about our environment. The primary objective of environmental education is to create an environment-friendly mindset and attitude among all sections of society. This will lead to the development of environmental ethics and increase the value people place on conservation of life and biodiversity in the environment. Environmental studies provide sufficient knowledge about the philosophy, genesis and consequences of local and global environmental problems and the necessary knowledge for their abatement and control. Environmental protection requires both preventive and curative measures. This shows increased environmental awareness on part of both the government and the people. This was also reflected at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in June 1972, where Agenda-21, a Global Action Plan was adopted with the aim of integrating environmental imperatives with developmental aspirations. 3 Definition of Environment The environment can simply be defined as the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates. It is the setting or conditions in which a particular activity is carried on. It is the natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially as affected by human activity. The environment must be viewed in its totality, as a set of interlocking systems which include the physical, biological, and social systems. Environmental awareness is the process of learning about the environment so as to work with it and not destroy it i.e. learning how to sustain the environment and prevent loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity: is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or on an entire planet. It includes variation at the level of genes, species, and entire ecosystems. Biome is a distinct ecological community of plants and animals living together in a particular climate are called a "biome." Therefore; The term is most commonly used to describe the "natural" environment and means the sum of all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or group of organisms.  Includes; all elements, factors, and conditions that have some impact on growth and development of a certain organism. Includes both biotic and abiotic factors (light, temp., water, atmospheric gases) that have influence on observed organism.  Environment often changes after some time and hence many organisms have ability to adapt to these changes  Biophysical environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the biological life forms within the environment, and includes all variables that comprise the earth's biosphere. Divided into:  Natural environment  Built environment –increasingly important part of earth environment The two have an overlap 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THEM. 1.Physical System: Atmosphere (relating to air), hydrosphere (relating to water), lithosphere (relating to rocks and soils) 2.Biological System : Biosphere that entails all living things (flora and fauna) from their simplest to the most complex forms 3.Socio-cultural System : Comprises the processes and outcomes of the alterations of the bio-physical environment by man to meet his needs and includes technosphere, and socio-sphere that encompasses built environment, machines, politics, economy, cultures, et 4.Biosphere-the global sum of all the ecosystems. It is a self regulating system integrating all living beings and their relationships 1. PHYSICAL SYSTEM Comprises of the following components:  THE ATMOSPHERE 5 Weather is the state of the atmosphere at any instant in time and the weather elements of temperature, relative humidity etc are recorded by use of meteorological instruments. Climate refers to the general state of the atmosphere over a period of time, usually 30 to 40 years. Clean air is important for survival hence there is a need for knowledge of the atmosphere, its properties and how it relates to habitat. Role of the Atmosphere  OXYGEN 6  NITROGEN 7 NB: Nitrogen is, along with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen vital in the formation of basic materials for all life.  CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon dioxide is important because all green vegetation depend on it for the manufacture of food (photosynthesis). 8 Summary, ROLES OF THE ATMOSPHERE TO THE FLORA AND FAUNA  Supports life on earth.  Serves as a link between oceans and land.  Controls climate and location of biomes.  Changes in its composition can be a first indicator of changes in biogeochemical processes worldwide.  Allows circulation of air  Provides ideal flying conditions of aeroplanes LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Troposphere Stratosphere 9 Mesosphere Thermosphere  THE PEDO-LITHOSPHERE This refers to the outer solid but this crust of the earth which is made up of lighter rocks. The rocks and minerals are important in the formation of soils through the process of weathering. They also have a role as far as soil texture (the size of particles which make up soil) and structure (the way in which the soil grains are grouped together). This system must interact with the atmosphere and hydrosphere for the formation of soil, minerals and fossils. The atmosphere provides temperatures needed in the soil formation 10 while the hydrosphere provides water. The biological system depends on this surface to provide the ecosystems and plants derive their nutrients from the pedo-lithosphere. So plants and animals depend on the pedo-lithosphere for their growth and nourishment i.e. food production.  THE HYDROSPHERE In nature, water is in a permanent movement from land into the sea as run-off and also to the atmosphere through evaporation and evapo-transpiration and back to the land as precipitation. The principal path way of water through the major systems of the earth is known as the water cycle (Circulation of water) - Hydrological cycle. 11 WATER BALANCE One way of measuring the overall water resources is via the use of the water balance. This is the relationship between the water gains of the soil-plants belt from precipitation (P), and the water loses from the same area through evaporation (E), surface run-off (R) and infiltration (I) i.e. P=E+R+I Human activities such as deforestation or building of dams and reservoirs have interrupted the water cycle, leading to water shortages. So, water or the hydrosphere is found in all the systems i.e. the atmosphere as vapor, which helps to reduce heat, the pedo-lithosphere where it helps in soil formation, the biological systems where it‘s used by plants for growth and in animals for drinking, domestic use, generation of electricity and in food production i.e. irrigation. Human influence on the hydrological cycle  The hydrological cycle is usually called a recurring consequence of different forms of movement of water and changes of its physical state on a given area of the Earth.  The main processes of this cycle include: precipitation; formation of snow cover; snow metamorphosis and formation of ice; melting of snow and ice; interception of precipitation by vegetation cover and storage in land surface depressions; infiltration of water into soil and vertical transfer of soil moisture; evapotranspiration; recharge of groundwater and ground flow; river runoff generation; and movement of water in river channel systems.  Human activity has the potential to indirectly and directly affect water quantity and the natural flow regime of a river system.  Indirect impacts to the hydrologic cycle can result from land-use changes.  Direct impacts can result from: water diversions, withdrawals (Irrigation, drinking etc) and discharges (pollutants), and from dams (flow regulation and water storage).  Climate change  Disturbance of forests disrupts the capacity of the landscape to sustain transpiration 12  Sometimes industrial activities lead to large emissions of water vapor into the atmosphere, producing a local hydrological influence through the development of low-altitude clouds and fogs 2.THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM This is composed of the flora (plants) and fauna (animals) and the micro organisms. The living things and their physical surroundings form an ecosystem. An ecosystem is the inter-relationship of living organisms and with the physical environment. Within the ecosystem, materials essential to life circulate from the physical to the living and back to the physical system forming dynamic relationships referred to as natural cycles. Ecosystems can either be natural (terrestrial or aquatic) or manmade (irrigated land or urbanization). The biological system depends on other systems like the hydrosphere. Plants and animals require water for various biological functions. The pedo-lithosphere – plants helps to reduce soil erosion, provides humus to the soil and acts as a cover on the surface. The atmosphere provides carbon dioxide to plants which they use in the making of their food. Animals too depend on oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere. 3.THE SOCIO CULTURAL SYSTEM The social environment results from the effect of human activities on the natural environment. It refers to all the physical infrastructure built by people together with the social and institutional systems that they have developed. This system consists of people, institutions (rules), natural resources, technology, and organizations. When stress is exerted on any one environmental system (physical, biological or social) repercussions are felt in the other systems e.g. farming methods may degrade land, result into erosion, hence affecting the growth of plants. NB: 13 4.BIOSPHERE RELATIONSHIP OF MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT 14 Reflection Questions: i. Highlighting their importance, discuss the main components of the environment (environmental systems) ii. Explain the importance of environmental components to the biotic component of the environment 15 TOPIC 2: NATURAL RESOURCES Therefore; Natural resources:  They are naturally occurring features or characteristics of the environment. They include all those materials (air, water, sunlight, minerals and habitats) which can be utilized by man to his advantage or can be used to create wealth. Have an economic value to man.  All the materials are are of cosmic origin and are not created by man and therefore, are called natural resources.  They are characterized by biodiversity, that is, relative number of species, diverse in form and function and exist in various ecosystems.  Natural resources exist in the environment and are both scarce and economically useful in production or consumption, either in their raw state or after a minimal amount of processing. They are natural capital assets, distinct from physical and human capital; as they are not created by human activity.  The natural resources occur in all the three divisions of the biosphere (lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere). 16 CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Can be classified on the following basis: Based on ORIGIN Based on Renewability 17 Therefore, TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES 7. Wildlife / animal Resources  FOREST RESOURCES 18 IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS 19 CONSERVATION OF FORESTS v) Undertaking social forestry programs fof planting trees and protecting trees on a large scale 2. WATER RESOURCE 20 CONSERVATION OF WATER 3. MINERAL RESOURCES Measure to Reduce Mining 4. FOOD RESOURCE 21 5. LAND RESOURCE SOIL CONSERVATION 6. ENERGY RESOURCE 22 MEASURES TO CONSERVE ENERGY 7. WILDLIFE / ANIMAL RESOURCE iv) Source of foreign exchange v) Source of employment vi) Wildlife is important to natural processes (pollination, dispersal, nutrient recycling etc) Cost i) Human wildlife conflict Therefore: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION is very critical!!!! 23 Biodiversity can be conserved as follows: 24 General Importance of Natural Resources  Natural resources often determine its wealth and status in the world economic system  Religious purpose, natural resources are used for creating people with desire of believing according to their cultural and traditional. People conduct their prayer in the big trees, big rivers and other land natural scenery likes caves and big forest.  Employment creation- Many of these jobs are in the areas of recreation and tourism.  Source of foreign exchange  Coastlines in the country provide economic opportunity in the areas of transportation, construction, boating, shipping, and oil and drilling.  Farmland provides a nation with fertile soil that is renewable and suitable for agricultural uses. Land is essential for food production.  Water present in rivers, streams and lakes is not only beneficial to farmland. It also provides energy and power, such as electricity, to buildings, also used as a mode of transport. The society relies on water for sanitation, personal hygiene and electricity is harnessed using the power of running water.  Oil, natural gas and coal are all sources of fuel used in the transportation and heating industries.  Minerals, though not renewable, are important to society. Metals are used in building structures, automobiles, electric wiring etc  Food grown through farming is important for development, as the basic necessity to survival.  Animals help with various aspects of labour (e.g. horses, mules, donkeys etc.)  Wind and sunlight are both renewable and play multiple roles in people‘s lives. Both provide renewable energy sources.  Tourists attraction Reflection Questions: a) Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources, giving examples of each. b) Explain the significance of the following natural resources in Kenya: (i)Mau Forest (ii) Lake Victoria c) Identify the major threats to the conservation of the above resources d) Discuss any 2 key drivers of environmental degradation and show how they can be arrested. e) Discuss these concepts in relation to SD: (i) Equity (ii) -Food security f) Deterioration of environment in Kenya has been blamed to rapid population. Discuss 25 TOPIC 3: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS Objectives: The learner should be able to: a. Define Environmental Crisis b.Explain the major causes Environmental Crisis c. Identify impacts of environmental crisis on natural and social systems d.Give specific examples of environmental issues in Kenya 3.1 Causes of Environmental Crisis An environmental issue is a known process (e.g. consumption of resource) that has negative effects on the sustainability of the environmental quality necessary for the wellbeing of the organisms living in it. (Ahuja, 1998) Environmental crisis refers to an ecological crisis that occurs when the environment of a species or a population changes in a way that destabilizes its continued survival. Crisis: why the crisis? Crisis- alarm……………….…………………………………………. -There are a myriad aspects of the environmental crisis that negatively affect the quality of the human condition. -Environmental strain and stresses are now common phenomena all over the world. -Stresses and strain- in the form of over fishing in the seas, forests being cut down at unprecedented rates, soil being depleted (e.g. erosion), air pollution in almost all urban settings and the emerging threat of a warming globe due to accumulation of GHGs The result is environmental degradation Various environmental problems now affect our entire world. As globalization continues and the earth's natural processes transform local problems into international issues, few societies are being left untouched by major environmental problems. Environmental degradation occurs when the earth‘s resources are depleted; especially water, air and soil. Degradation impacts on wildlife, plants, animals and microorganisms. The major causes of environmental degradation include; urbanization, 26 population growth, poverty, economic growth, intensification of agriculture increase in energy use, increase in transportation, among others. Global environmental concerns include:  Pollution  Deforestation:  Global Warming  Ocean Acidification:  Overpopulation  Ozone Layer Depletion:  Natural Resource Depletion  Deforestation  Waste Disposal  Ocean Acidification  Climate Change  Ozone Layer Depletion:  Loss of Biodiversity 1. OVERPOPULATION (Explosive growth of the world’s human population) The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental problems. A growing population places increasing demands on scarce resources, hence degrading the global ecosystem. Population growth is likely to outstrip the limited resources (carrying capacity). Hunger and malnutrition are common in developing countries as a result of high population growth. Rapidly growing populations have led to land, water and fuel wood shortages in the rural areas. In urban centers, crises stem from lack of sanitation and clean water. In most of the poorest areas of the globe, increasing population density has contributed to severe and accelerating degradation of the very resources that these growing populations depend on for their survival. Consequences of population growth on the environment  Reduction of land per capita  Over exploitation/encroachment of resources hence loss of biodiversity  Social crimes 27  Unemployment  Intensive cultivation  Poverty  Environmental degradation  This contributes to climate change and general global warming 2. OZONE LAYER DEPLETION Therefore, Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)  Chlorofluorocarbons: Account for more than 80% of ozone depletion. Used in freezers, air cooling component, dry-cleaning agents, hospital sterilants. 28     Methyl Chloroform: Used for vapour degreasing, some aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives and chemical processing. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons: Substitutes for CFC‘s but still play a vital role in ozone depletion. Halons Carbon Tetrachloride: Mainly used in fire extinguishers OZONE HOLE- Discovered in 1985 by British Scientists EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION POLICY RESPONSES TO MITIGATE OZONE LAYER DEPLETION 29 THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL 3. GREENHOUSE EFFECT Greenhouse effect is simply the process by which gases in the atmosphere absorb and reradiate or redirect heat from earth that would otherwise have escaped to space thereby warming the earth or leading to increase in surface temperatures. Warming results when solar radiation is trapped by the atmosphere gases that allow sunshine to pass through but absorb heat that is radiated back from the warmed surface of the earth. The atmosphere thus acts in the manner roughly analogous to the glass in a green house, which allows sunlight to penetrate and warm the plants and soil but which traps most of the resulting heat energy inside. The greenhouse effect is essential to life on earth, however the intensification of its effect due to increased level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is considered to be the main contributing factor to global warming. This happening over a long period of time causes global warming and ultimate climate change. 30 Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is human expansion of the "greenhouse effect"— warming that result when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases that remain semi-permanently in the atmosphere and do not respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are described as "forcing" climate change. Gases, such as water vapor, which respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature, are seen as "feedbacks." Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:  Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.  Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.  Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the atmosphere.  Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. 31  Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin used in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.  Ozone which occurs naturally in the atmosphere. 4. GLOBAL WARMING Refers to increasing average air and ocean temperatures, largely due to human, industrial, forestry and agricultural activities emitting greenhouse gases. Thus, Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the Earth's climate. Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is human expansion of the "greenhouse effect"1 — warming that result when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Climate changes like global warming are the result of human practices that emit Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to;  Rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth‘ surface  Causing melting of polar ice caps  Rise in sea levels and also  Unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification. 5. CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change refers to altering of underlying climate, such as increased temperatures, decreased annual precipitation or greater intensity of drought or storms. Climate change occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries. 32 According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007), the developing world, particularly the poorest countries, can expect major consequences from global warming, involving severe heat waves, hurricanes, floods from heavy rains, prolonged droughts, losses of valuable species, and crop and fish losses (extinction). The most vulnerable zones are the sub-Saharan Africa, (due to drying), Asian mega deltas (due to flooding), small islands (due to multiple sensitivities) and the Arctic. In Africa, it is projected that the area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing seasons and yield potential will decrease. Yields from rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by 50% by 2020. Another effect in Africa will be water stress due to climate change. Coastal fisheries, mangroves and coral reefs will be further degraded and threatened by projected rises in sea level and storms. Impacts of climate change Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to:  Melting of polar ice and hence rise in sea level. This also may lead to flash floods, typhoons especially in Asia  Stronger and more intense hurricanes  Change in seasons and more draughts and heat waves, changes in precipitation  Frequent occurrence of floods and  Change in overall weather scenario.  Increased temperature  Incidences of diseases that are favored by warm climate eg malaria  Forest fire that destroy forest vegetation  Raise of emergencies response cost in budgetary allocation that affect the economy  Low agricultural yields, hence poverty, famine  Insurgent of warm water to the sea affects the aquatic life by inhabiting algae survival.  Loss of biodiversity- Weather changes and reduced rain may cause extinction of some species hence desertification and wild life extinction.  Resource based conflict due to reduces resources Specifically, 33 Agriculture  Moderate warming and more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may help plants to grow faster. However, more severe warming, floods, and drought may reduce yields.  Livestock may be at risk, both directly from heat stress and indirectly from reduced quality of their food supply.  Fisheries will be affected by changes in water temperature that shift species ranges, make waters more hospitable to invasive species, and change lifecycle timing. Coastal Areas  Sea level rise and more frequent intense storms could disrupt energy production and delivery by damaging electricity infrastructure, fuel delivery infrastructure and equipment, power plants, or storage facilities.  Climate change could put additional stress on coastal areas, which are already stressed by human activity, pollution, invasive species, and storms.  Coastal development reduces the ability of natural systems to respond to climate changes.  Sea level rise could erode and inundate coastal ecosystems and eliminate wetlands.  Warmer and more acidic oceans are likely to disrupt coastal and marine ecosystems. Ecosystems  Climate change can alter where species live and how they interact, which could fundamentally transform current ecosystems.  Impacts on one species can ripple through the food web and affect many organisms in an ecosystem.  Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change.  Projected warming could greatly increase the rate of species extinctions, especially in sensitive regions. Energy  Climate change is likely to both increase electricity demand for cooling in the summer and decrease electricity, natural gas, heating oil, and wood demand for heating in the winter. New infrastructure investments may be necessary to meet increased energy demand, especially peak demand during heat waves. 34  Climate change could affect the amount of water available to produce electricity or extract fuel. In areas where water is already scarce, competition for water between energy production and other uses could increase.  Sea level rise and more frequent intense storms could disrupt energy production and delivery by damaging electricity infrastructure, fuel delivery infrastructure and equipment, power plants, or storage facilities. Forests  Climate change will likely alter the frequency and intensity of forest disturbances, including wildfires, storms, insect outbreaks, and the occurrence of invasive species.  The productivity of forests could be affected by changes in temperature, precipitation and the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.  Climate change will likely worsen the problems already faced by forests from land development and air pollution. Human health  A warmer climate is expected to both increase the risk of heat-related illnesses and death and worsen conditions for air quality.  Climate change will likely increase the frequency and strength of extreme events (such as floods, droughts, and storms) that threaten human safety and health.  Climate changes may allow some diseases to spread more easily. ADDRESSING GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE i. Set limits on global pollution, through strong legislation that caps carbon emissions and makes polluters pay for the gases they produce. ii. Invest in green energy and jobs. Use of wind, solar, hydro-electric and geothermal energy which does not pollute the environment. iii. Manufacturing fuel-efficient cars and those that depend on less lead fuels. Alternative sources of fuel/energy e.g. electricity or biodiesel can be used. iv. Invest in commuter/public transport by road and rail, to give people real choices for transportation. 35 v. Drive less and Drive Smart-Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise. Explore your community mass transit system, and check out options for carpooling to work or school. vi. Buy Energy-Efficient Products. Home appliances now come in a range of energyefficient models, and compact florescent bulbs are designed to provide more naturallooking light while using far less energy than standard light bulbs. Replace your current home appliances (refrigerator, washing machine, dish washer) with high-efficiency models. vii. Use the "Off" Switch. Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a room, and using only as much light as you need. And remember to turn off your television, video player, stereo and computer when you're not using them. viii. Plant native, drought-resistant trees and shrubs around your home. During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic, manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime. ix. Encourage Others to Conserve. Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment. x. Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. If there isn't a recycling program at your workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one. By recycling half of your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually. How environmental education can help to mitigate climate change  Creates awareness about environmental problems among people. 36  Imparts basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.  Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.  Motivates public to participate in environment protection and environment improvement.  Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in identifying and solving environmental problems.  Striving to attain harmony with Nature. 6. POLLUTION The presence in or introduction into the environment of a substance or thing that has harmful or poisonous effects. Thus, Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source (One source) or nonpoint source pollution (Diffuse sources). TYPES OF POLLUTION a) Air Pollution Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle. Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:  Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust  Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources  Building construction or demolition Effects of Air Pollution Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed:  Smog increases,  higher rain acidity- Acid rain formation  crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and  Higher rates of asthma and other respiratory complications 37  Irritation of eyes  Headaches and dizziness  Cancer and cardiovascular diseases  Many scientists believe that global warming is also related to increased air pollution. NB: Acid Rain is rainfall made sufficiently acidic by atmospheric pollution that it causes environmental harm, typically to forests and lakes. The main cause is the industrial burning of coal and other fossil fuels, the waste gases from which contain sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which combine with atmospheric water to form acids. Effects of acid rain  Effect on Aquatic Environment – Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off the forests, roads and fields to flow into streams, rivers and lakes. Over a period of time, acids get accumulated in the water and lower the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life.  Effect on Forests – It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects by destroying their leaves, damaging the bark and arresting their growth.  Effect on Soil – As it falls on forest or field soil, it kills useful micro-organisms and leaches nutrients of soil. Many a times, this leads to calcium and other nutrient deficiency, producing infertile soils.  Effect on Architecture and Buildings – Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with limestone, react with the minerals and corrode them away. This leaves the building weak and susceptible to decay. Modern buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage buildings.  Effect on Public Health – When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their particulate matter derivatives like sulfates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause accidents, leading to injuries and deaths. 38 b) Water Pollution Involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades the water's quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as different water sources flow together the pollution can spread. Causes of water pollution include:  Increased sediment from soil erosion  Improper waste disposal and littering  Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies  Organic material decay in water supplies Water pollution takes many forms. Although there are natural causes of water pollution, for instance that caused by volcanoes and other natural phenomenon, the pollution caused by man is of the greatest concern. Types of water pollution Biological Water Pollution Some viruses and bacteria are water born. These can cause serious diseases in people in direct contact with this contaminated water. This might include people drinking, swimming or washing in the contaminated water and extremely serious and contagious diseases such as cholera and typhoid are spread in this manner. Oxygen Depletion Oxygen depletion destroys the natural balance of the water and ultimately bacteria thrive and fish and other wildlife die. Oxygen depletion is caused by the release of biodegradable matter into the water, such as sewage and the natural process of breaking this down uses the oxygen in the water. Once all the oxygen has been depleted, bacteria are able to take over making the water polluted. Nutrients Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen are essential to plant growth. Fertilizers contain many nutrients and when these enter the water supply, perhaps due to water 39 running off a field into a river, the nutrients cause an imbalance in the makeup of the water. As nutrients are important to plant growth on land, the same applies to plants in the water. Therefore, too many nutrients in the water encourage the growth of weeds and algae. This can make the water highly polluted and result in oxygen depletion as mentioned above Chemical Chemical water pollution is perhaps the type of water pollution that we are most familiar with. This term is used to describe the act of adding unwanted chemicals to the water and is done through the accidental spillage of substances into water; waste from factories or industry and through pesticides running off fields into water. Chemicals in water are poisonous and harmful to wildlife as well as making the water too polluted to drink. The effects of chemical pollution are wide reaching. Chemical water pollution is also used to describe the pollution of water by oil, for instance when an oil tank ruptures or a ship sinks. The photographs and images we see on the television of oil covered birds and dying wildlife gives some indication of the serious nature of this and other types of pollution. Suspended Matter Not all chemicals and pollutants are water soluble, and those that aren't are called suspended matter. The tiny particles of matter stay in the water and eventually fall to the bottom, forming a layer of silt on the floor of the lake or river. This is harmful to wildlife and causes long term problems due to an imbalance in the natural infrastructure of the water. In addition to the problems caused by the suspended matter, the problem caused by pollution due to suspended matter is compounded by dead fish and wildlife decomposing in the water. Effects of water pollution  Decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available,  lowering water supplies for crop irrigation, and 40  Impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of certain purity for survival.  Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides, hydrocarbons, heavy metals etc.) e.g. cancer, liver and kidney damage  Water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis  Eutrophication- excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen. Therefore; it is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen c) Soil Pollution Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while much more is accidental and can have widespread effects. Soil pollution sources include:  Hazardous waste and sewage spills  Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides  Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices  Household dumping and littering Effects of soil pollution  Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields,  loss of wildlife habitat,  water and visual pollution,  soil erosion, and  Desertification. d) Noise pollution 41 Refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the affected area. Noise pollution can come from:  Traffic  Airports  Railroads  Manufacturing plants  Construction or demolition  Concerts Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects of Noise pollution  Hearing loss- Temporary deafness  wildlife disturbances, and  a general degradation of lifestyle. e) Radioactive Pollution Radioactive pollution is rare but extremely detrimental, and even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution. Sources of radioactive contamination include:  Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage  Improper nuclear waste disposal  Uranium mining operations Effects of radioactive pollution  Radiation pollution can cause birth defects,  cancer,  sterilization, and  Other health problems for human and wildlife populations.  It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution. f) Thermal Pollution Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be 42 considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects. Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts over a greater geographic area. Thermal pollution may be caused by:  Power plants  Urban sprawl  Air pollution particulates that trap heat  Deforestation  Loss of temperature moderating water supplies Effects of thermal pollution  As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and  wildlife populations may be unable to recover from swift changes hence death and migration g) Light Pollution Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:  Large cities  Billboards and advertising  Nighttime sporting events and other nighttime entertainment Effects of light pollution Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment. If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents. h) Visual Pollution Visual pollution - eyesores - can be caused by other pollution or just by undesirable, unattractive views. It may lower the quality of life in certain areas, or could impact property values and personal enjoyment. Sources of visual pollution include:  Power lines 43  Construction areas  Billboards and advertising  Neglected areas or objects such as polluted vacant fields or abandoned buildings While visual pollution has few immediate health or environmental effects, what's causing the eyesore can have detrimental effects. 7. WASTE DISPOSAL The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the wellbeing of humans. Waste disposal is one of urgent current environmental problem. Challenges facing solid waste disposal in Kenyan  Poor methods of disposal.  Burning of heaps and rotting litter produces noxious odours which are harmful to health of living things.  Poor waste management by the local authorities  Inadequate finances to purchase the modern equipment for waste disposal  Cause of infectious diseases due to contamination of water sources and environment. These disease include: cholera, typhoid, malaria etc  Inadequate knowledge and lack of appropriate technology of waste handling  Poor and weak institutions 8. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and loss of biodiversity. Ecosystems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species population is decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human activity threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which support the rich marine life. 44 9. DEFORESTATION Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover and makes that land available for residential, industrial or commercial purpose. Deforestation or felling trees has become a favorite activity of man to extract assorted needs- be it medicines or precious paper to waste. Thus, deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area, or wasteland. Deforestation can also be seen as removal of forests leading to several imbalances ecologically and environmentally and results in declines in habitat and biodiversity. Causes of Deforestation 1. Agricultural Activities: As earlier mentioned in the overview, agricultural activities are one of the major factors affecting deforestation. Due to overgrowing demand for food products, huge amount of tress are fell down to grow crops and for cattle grazing. 2. Logging: Apart from this, wood based industries like paper, match-sticks, furniture etc also need a substantial amount of wood supply. Wood is used as fuel both directly and indirectly, therefore trees are chopped for supplies. Firewood and charcoal are examples of wood being used as fuel. Some of these industries thrive on illegal wood cutting and felling of trees. 3. Urbanization: Further on order to gain access to these forests, the construction of roads are undertaken; here again trees are chopped to create roads. Overpopulation too directly affects forest covers, as with the expansion of cities more land is needed to establish housing and settlements. Therefore forest land is reclaimed. 45 4. Desertification of land: Some of the other factors that lead to deforestation are also part natural and part anthropogenic like Desertification of land. It occurs due to land abuse making it unfit for growth of trees. Many industries in petrochemicals release their was 5. Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forest land. Apart from this, roads and highways have to be built to make way for trucks and other equipment. The waste that comes out from mining pollutes the environment and affects the nearby species. 6. Forest Fires: Another example would be forest blazes; Hundreds of trees are lost each year due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summers and milder winters. Fires, whether causes by man or nature results in huge loss of forest cover. Effects of Deforestation 1. Climate Imbalance: Deforestation also affects the climate in more than one ways. Trees release water vapor in the air, which is compromised on with the lack of trees. Trees also provide the required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature further making conditions for the ecology difficult. Flora and fauna across the world are accustomed to their habitat. This haphazard clearance of forests has forced several of these animals to shift from their native environment. Due to this several species are finding it difficult to survive or adapt to new habitats. 2. Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees utilize the greenhouse gases, restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant deforestation the ratio of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes. 3. Soil Erosion: Also due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. With the clearance of tree cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry. 46 4. Floods: When it rains, trees absorb and store large amount of water with the help of their roots. When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted and leads to floods in some areas and droughts in other. 5. Wildlife Extinction: Due to massive felling down of trees, various species of animals are lost. They lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. Some of them are even pushed to extinction. Our world has lost so many species of plants and animals in last couple of decades. Solutions to Deforestation 1. The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a series of rules and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have reduced however it would be too early to assume. The money-churner that forest resources can be is tempting enough for deforestation to continue. 2. Clear cutting of forests must be banned. This will curb total depletion of the forest cover. It is a practical solution and is very feasible. 3. Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees in the vicinity and replace the cut trees. Also the cutting must be replaced by planting young trees to replace the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted under several initiatives every year, but they still don‘t match the numbers of the ones we‘ve already lost. Reflection Questions: 1. Identify and explain major environmental issues in Kenya. 2. Discuss the effects of the environmental crises on the natural and social systems. 3. Discuss the implications of climate change on the realization of Kenya‘s Vision 2030. 4. Explain the relationship between poverty and the various environmental crisis? 47 TOPIC 4: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) Objectives a) Explain the concept of sustainable development. b) Identify the main pillars of sustainable development and how they interact. Definition There are many definitions of sustainable development, including this landmark one which first appeared in 1987: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. — from (the the World Brundtland Commission on Commission) Environment report Our and Development‘s Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Therefore; It is economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources. DIMENSIONS/ PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Sustainable development requires simultaneous and balanced progress in four dimensions that are totally interdependent:  Social  Economic  Ecological/ Environmental  Political/ Institutional As a result of the close relationships between the four these dimensions of sustainable development, achieving this goal requires a dynamic balance between: The special contribution of the concept of sustainable development is that it emphasizes respect for cultural values and, thus, does not see economic indicators as the sole measure of development. Rather, sustainable development represents the balanced integration of social and environmental objectives with economic development. These three aspects of 48 sustainable development – society, environment and economics – were named as the three pillars of sustainable development at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. In relation to Education for Sustainable Development, these three pillars of sustainable development involve:  Society … an understanding of social institutions and their role in change and development, as well as the democratic and participatory systems which give opportunity for the expression of opinion, the selection of governments, the forging of consensus and the resolution of differences. Development is socially sustainable when it achieves social justice via equitable resource allocation, eradicates poverty, and provides social services, such as education, health and others to all members of the society, especially the most needy. Seeks to build a just and cohesive society.  Environment … an awareness of the resources and fragility of the physical environment and the effects on it of human activity and decisions, with a commitment to factoring environmental concerns into social and economic policy development. An ecologically sustainable system maintains a solid base of natural resources and avoids excessive use of such resources- entails biodiversity conservation, attaining atmospheric balance, soil productivity and other systems-sustainability means setting limits for consumption, population growth, wasteful prodn ways -MDG 7 ‗Environmental Sustainability‘.  Economy … skills to earn a living as well as a sensitivity to the limits and potential of economic growth and its impact on society and on the environment, with a commitment to assess personal and societal levels of consumption out of concern for the environment and for social justice. Economic-sustainability means providing economic welfare at present and in the future, while paying more attention to the "natural capital―(NRs of economic value like soils, plants, animal and bio-environmental system such as air and water purification). For rich 49 countries- sustainable development means steady reductions in wasteful levels of consumption of energy and other natural resources through improvements in efficiency and through changes in life-style However,  Institutional Institutional- participation of all community members in the decision making process and ; also organizations (councils, committees) dealing with implementation of development goals. (Politics and culture) is also a key dimension of sustainable development, which influences the interactions of and between the three pillars. They are concerned with the values we cherish, the ways in which we perceive our relationship with others and with the natural world, and with how we make decisions. The values, diversity, knowledge, languages and worldviews associated with culture and politics strongly influence the way issues of sustainable development are decided and, thus, provide it with local relevance. As a result of the close relationships between the four these dimensions of sustainable development, achieving this goal requires a dynamic balance between:  Production and consumption;  Ecology and economics;  Development and conservation;  Culture and ecology; and  Democracy and economics. ICT (digital)- Information and communication technologies (ICT) are closely related to the four dimensions of SD. The MDGs and the recommendations of the international summit for information and communication technology held in Geneva in November 2003 provided a suitable methodological framework on how to make use of ICT in achieving sustainable development. Hence ICT has been added as a fifth dimension of SD SD requires simultaneous and balanced progress in four dimensions that are totally interdependent 50 Goals for Sustainable Human Development The General Assembly of the United Nations met from 6-8 September, 2000 in a special Millennium Summit where a special United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted. This Declaration emphasized the social aspects of sustainable development and the importance of overcoming poverty and inequality. It declared that sustainable human development is central to world peace and future progress: The Millennium Declaration was based upon six fundamental values that underlie sustainable human development: Freedom Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise their children in dignity, free from hunger and from the fear of violence, oppression or injustice. Democratic and participatory governance based on the will of the people best assures these rights. Equality No individual and no nation must be denied the opportunity to benefit from development. The equal rights and opportunities of women and men must be assured. Solidarity 51 Global challenges must be managed in a way that distributes the costs and burdens fairly in accordance with basic principles of equity and social justice. Those who suffer or who benefit least deserve help from those who benefit most. Tolerance Human beings must respect one other, in all their diversity of belief, culture and language. Differences within and between societies should be neither feared nor repressed, but cherished as a precious asset of humanity. A culture of peace and dialogue among all civilizations should be actively promoted. Respect for nature Prudence must be shown in the management of all living species and natural resources, in accordance with the precepts of sustainable development. Only in this way can the immeasurable riches provided to us by nature be preserved and passed on to our descendants. The current unsustainable patterns of production and consumption must be changed in the interest of our future welfare and that of our descendants. Shared responsibility Responsibility for managing worldwide economic and social development, as well as threats to international peace and security, must be shared among the nations of the world and should be exercised multilaterally. As the most universal and most representative organization in the world, the United Nations must play the central role. In partnership with the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the OECD, the United Nations agreed on a set of Millennium Development Goals inspired by these fundamental values. The goals came from the agreements and resolutions of the world conferences organized by the United Nations in the first half of the 1990s. 52 MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger  Reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than one dollar a day;  Reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. 2. Achieve universal primary education  Ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary schooling. 3. Promote gender equality and empower women  Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015. 4. Reduce child mortality  Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five. 5. Improve maternal health  Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio. 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases  Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS;  Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases. 53 8. Develop a global partnership for development  Develop further an open trading and financial system that is rulebased; predictable and non-discriminatory. Includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty reduction – nationally and internationally; Address the least developed countries‘ special needs. This includes  tariff- and quota-free access for their exports; enhanced debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries; cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction;  Address the special needs of landlocked and small island developing States; Deal comprehensively with developing countries‘ debt problems  through national and international measures to make debt sustainable in the long term;  In cooperation with the developing countries, develop decent and productive work for youth;  In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries;  In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies – especially information and communication technologies. In Summary the objectives of SD are:  Reviving growth;  Changing the quality of growth;  Meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation;  Ensuring a sustainable level of population;  Conserving and enhancing the resource base; 54  Reorienting technology and management risk;  Merging environment and economics in decision making. BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT TO ANY ECONOMY  Sustain biodiversity  Resources conservation (energy, water etc)  Control climate change  Provide financial stability  Provides basic human needs  Promotes innovation and effectiveness Critical Objectives of SD are:  Reviving growth;  Changing the quality of growth;  Meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation;  Ensuring a sustainable level of population;  Conserving and enhancing the resource base;  Reorienting technology and management risk;  Merging environment and economics in decision making. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA The main SD agenda includes the following: A) EQUITY Equity is about fairness; justness Equity is derived from a concept of social justice. Equity means that there should be a minimum level of income and environmental quality below which nobody falls. Generally, equity implies a need for fairness (not necessarily equality) in the distribution of gains and losses, and the entitlement of everyone to an acceptable quality and standard of living. It ensures that sufficiency and effective choices for all are pursued in ways that 55 reduce dangerous gaps in sufficiency and opportunity (and health, security, social recognition, political influence, etc) between the rich and the poor. Environmental inequalities already exist in all societies. Poorer people tend to suffer the burden of environmental problems more than others do. How? The concept of equity is well entrenched in international law. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that the ‘recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world’. Two types of equity: Intergenerational equity: The idea of not reducing the ability of future generations to meet their needs – a more critical equity. It‘s about moral obligation to future generations as the unborn can have no say on decisions made today that affect them. From an environmental point of view, future generations should have the same ability to create wealth (from natural capital) as we have. Intra-generational equity: This entails equity across communities and nations within one generation. It is a key SD principle as inequities are a cause of environmental degradation. Poverty deprives people of the choice about whether or not to be environmentally sound in their activities. The poor/hungry often will often destroy their immediate environment in order to survive. High levels of affluence also damaging to the environment – e.g. high levels of consumption, which lead to resource depletion and waste accumulation – global warming example Inequities also exist in the impacts of environmental policies and inequities in decision making processes – e.g. measures to improve environmental problems may impact more on some sectors of the community than others through imposing additional costs in industries that then find they cannot compete internationally or by imposing additional costs on individual companies who may have a cease business or reduce their workforce as a result. 56 B) FOOD SECURITY Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life, in ways the planet can sustain into the future. World Food Summit definition (1996): food security exists ―when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life‖. It includes both physical and economic access to food that meets peoples‘ dietary needs and preferences. Health problems related to dietary excess are an ever increasing threat in many countries. Improved FS is important for global reduction of hunger and poverty, and for economic development. The FAO defines food security as follows: ―Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life‖. PILLARS OF FOOD SECURITY This involves four dimensions/pillars:  Food availability: Sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis. This can be guaranteed in two ways: production and trade. Production: production aimed at selfsufficiency and lowering dependency on other regions/nations. Trade: transport possibilities and storage capacities. International trade in agriculture has expanded.  Food access: Having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. It is concerned with both physical access and affordability – access to markets (transport), cost transmission of price developments to producers.  Food use: Appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation.  Stability of food supply The two options for fulfilling demand – food imports and domestic production – imply several reasons for instability of food supplies. A major reason for instability in food 57 supply is high fluctuation in food prices (price volatility). Another factor is conflicts – increases food supply risks. Hence FS is not only a function of production. FS concept has evolved – currently FS has ethical and human rights dimensions. Some countries have adopted a rights-based approach to FS, having right to food enshrined in their constitution. Current Kenya constitution identifies agriculture as key to FS. Causes of food insecurity  Low agricultural productivity – agricultural output in SSA has barely kept up with population increases, and Africa now imports 25% of its grain requirements.  Inadequate access to productive assets (land and capital) – access to credit, inputs (prices).  Inadequate infrastructure – to ensure low food prices and efficient markets that can respond to changes in demand; infrastructure reduces the costs of transporting produce and inputs and food storage.  Pests and diseases  Limited well functioning markets – the international market is characterized by imbalances that threaten food security – subsides, tariffs and trade barriers.  High population pressure on land – continued population growth remains one of the biggest challenges to world FS and environ sustainability.  Inadequate access to appropriate technologies by farmers – improvements in cost and quality of food storage, processing, packaging and marketing; labor-saving technologies; and better communications.  Effects of global trade – prices, protectionist approach, oil.  Slow reform process – policy matters, governance – poor governance and corruption – affect hunger levels by disempowering vulnerable groups and seriously undermine any policies in place. Impacts of food insecurity  Hunger, poverty and disease are interlinked.  Problem of hunger – reduces natural defenses against most diseases, and the main risk factor for illness worldwide; 58  Poverty – people living in poverty often cannot produce or buy enough food to eat, and are more susceptible to disease.  Disease – the sick are less able to work or produce food. Undernourishment leads to the birth and of young children who are associated with poor cognitive development, resulting in lower productivity and lifetime earnings potential.  UNICEF estimates that one third of the world‘s people do not reach their physical and intellectual potential due to micronutrient deficiencies caused by food insecurity.  Hunger is a major constraint to a country‘s immediate and long term economic, social and political development.  Over exploitation of natural resources eg forest for cultivation  Leading to soil infertility, poor farming methods, dependency of chemicals to yield more food  Encroachment of natural resources like burning charcoal to get money for food,  Using alternative resources for food eg illicit activities like sand harvesting  Poaching and other invasive activities to the endangered wild life  Logging for sale etc Options for improving food security  To decrease the risk of highly volatile prices, price regulation on commodities and larger cereal stocks should be created to buffer the tight markets of food commodities and the subsequent risks of speculation in markets.  Encourage removal of subsidies and blending ratios of first generation biofuels, which would promote a shift to higher generation biofuels based on waste (if this does not compete with animal feed), thereby avoiding the capture of cropland by biofuels.  Support farmers in developing diversified and resilient eco-agriculture systems that provide critical ecosystem services (water supply and regulation, habitat, genetic diversity, pollination, pest control, climate regulation), as well as adequate food to meet local and consumer needs.  Reduce the use of cereals and food fish in animal feed and develop alternatives to animal and fish feed.  Increased trade and improved market access can be achieved by improving infrastructure and reducing trade barriers. 59  Limit global warming, including the promotion of climate-friendly agricultural production systems and land-use policies at a scale to help mitigate climate change.  Raise awareness of the pressures of increasing population growth and consumption patterns on sustainable ecosystem functioning. The role of the environment in food production There is a strong link between the state of the environment and food production; the natural environment is the entire platform upon which all life is based. For crops, the state of the environment directly influences soil nutrient availability, water (ground and surface water for irrigation), climate and weather (rainfall and growth season), availability of insects for pollination, and the abundance and effects of certain pests (pathogens, insects) and weeds, which have major impact on crops worldwide, particularly in Africa. Without these services, there would be no production, ecosystem services enhance agroecosystem resilience and sustain agricultural productivity. Thus, promoting the healthy functioning of ecosystems ensures the sustainability of agriculture as it intensifies to meet the growing demands for food production. C) ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT  Growth refers to an expansion in physical output of goods and services. Expressed in GDP- It is expressed by increases in GDP; can be negative (shrink)  Development refers to qualitative increase in well-being e.g. Health, education, increase in per capita income, life expectancy Economic Growth is a narrower concept than economic development. It is an increase in a country's real level of national output which can be caused by an increase in the quality of resources (by education etc.), increase in the quantity of resources & improvements in technology or in another way an increase in the value of goods and services produced by every sector of the economy. Economic Growth can be measured by an increase in a country's GDP (gross domestic product). Economic development is a normative concept i.e. it applies in the context of people's sense of morality (right and wrong, good and bad). The definition of economic development given by Michael Todaro is an increase in living standards, improvement in self-esteem needs and freedom from oppression as well as a greater choice. The most 60 accurate method of measuring development is the Human Development Index which takes into account the literacy rates & life expectancy which affects productivity and could lead to Economic Growth. It also leads to the creation of more opportunities in the sectors of education, healthcare, employment and the conservation of the environment. It implies an increase in the per capita income of every citizen. Economic Growth does not take into account the size of the informal economy. The informal economy is also known as the black economy which is unrecorded economic activity. Development alleviates people from low standards of living into proper employment with suitable shelter. Economic Growth does not take into account the depletion of natural resources which might lead to pollution, congestion & disease. Development however is concerned with sustainability which means meeting the needs of the present without compromising future needs. These environmental effects are becoming more of a problem for Governments now that the pressure has increased on them due to Global warming. The terms are not synonymous – Economic development does not necessarily mean economic growth; the type of economic activity can change without increasing the quantity of goods and services. However, economic growth is a necessary but not sufficient condition of economic development. D) POVERTY Poverty means the state of being extremely poor or the state of being inferior in quality or insufficient in amount. It is a condition where people's basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter are not being met. Poverty is a situation in which people cannot fulfill their basic needs. Types of poverty  Absolute Poverty  Relative Poverty 1. Absolute Poverty: Absolute poverty refers to a situation which individuals are unable to attendant necessities of life such as food, cloth, shelter, safe drinking water, health facilities, primary education etc. In other word, it is a situation in which the level of income of the people is so low that they cannot afford must of their basic needs. Absolute poverty or 61 destitution involves a lack of basic necessities including food, clothing sanitation, shelter, health care and education. Hence, absolute poverty line used to measure absolute poverty. 2. Relative poverty: Relative poverty is the situation in which a person has enough income to sustain the life but the income and living standard is lower compared to rest of the community. It is also the condition of less income in a country compare to the worldwide income average income. Relative poverty or economic inequality occurs when people have less income than other people in the country/unable to participate fully in the normal activities of their society. Hence, relative poverty line used to measure the relative poverty Characteristics of Poor 1. Low income 2. Education Education is the process of getting knowledge poor people is not aware about education knowledge. So, they think providing education facilities to daughter is useless and son and does not send their daughter to educational institute which causes high illiteracy rate. 3. Housing condition Housing condition of poor is extremely poor. Moreover, the condition of urban poor is worse than rural poor. Urban poor do not have their own house. They sustain their life on the basis of daily wage. Similarly, the life of rural poor is difficult. They live on small house. 4. Expenditure The less income, the more expenditure. The expenditure exceeds income in poor. They spend more than 70% income merely in food and rest in other sector. 5. Large family size Due to lack of education, poor people are not aware of family planning measures (birth control measures). So, they think begetting children is boon of god. 6. Property The word poor automatically refer to those who do not have property or who have less property. They do not have sufficient land to earn their livelihood. So, they work on other‘s land and earn their livelihood. 62 DIMENSIONS/ MEASURES OF POVERTY (Monetary and Non-monetary Measures)  Income:- Uses monetary income and expenditure to measure poverty. The lack of means to purchase basic goods and services denotes poverty  Financial insecurity- Dependence on cash income and lack of access to credits and safety nets  Personal insecurity- Drug/alcohol abuse and domestic violence; family breakdown and reduced support for children; social diversity and visible income inequality in cities, which increases tensions and can provide a temptation for crime  Tenure insecurity- Land and housing in authorized areas are not affordable, therefore the poor occupy land illegally and construct their houses without construction and occupancy permits  Health and education:- Adequate education and health provision avails adequate knowledge/ skills and health necessary to earn decent livelihood. Absence or inadequacy in health and education results in poverty  Vulnerability:- Is the probability of being exposed to factors causing or as a result of poverty such as lack of income, lack of food, poor health, violence, crime, natural disasters, dropping out of school, etc.  Voicelessness/powerlessness: Social and political exclusion/ disempowerment- This relates to capability of the poor in staking a claim or influencing access for material, moral or other practical support or access Causes of poverty 1. Rapid Population Growth The size and type of family i.e. large families and lone parent families tend to be at greater risk of poverty because they have higher costs, lower incomes and more difficulty in gaining well paid employment; 2. Gender inequality Gender - women are generally at higher risk of poverty than men as they are less likely to be in paid employment, tend to have lower pensions, are more involved in unpaid caring responsibilities and when they are in work, are frequently 63 paid less. The unequal distribution of income and wealth is another cause of poverty. The gap between rich and poor is very high and the distribution of national income is not in favors of poor people. So, poor get poorer and poorer and rich get richer and richer. 3. Illiteracy or Low levels of education and skills Illiteracy is also one of the causes of poverty. Illiterate people are unaware about family planning measures and birth spacing and are not familiar with the problem created by large population. So, the more population, the more requirement of job causes unemployment and ultimately arises poverty. 4. Lack of employment or having a poor quality (i.e. low paid or precarious) job The population is growth rate is high but industries are limited. So, rate of unemployment is growing rapidly leading to poverty. 5. Low saving About 70 or more percent of total salary or income is spent in food which is very high and rest 30% is spent in other sectors such as education, health etc. The percent shared by saving is null or very less. 6. Old technology Most farmers are traditional and are poor. They use old technology for farming. Similarly, the production is low, which causes poverty even though they labour hard enough. 7. Disability or ill-health because this limits ability to access employment and also leads to increased day to day costs; 8. Being a member of minority ethnic groups and immigrants/undocumented migrants as they suffer particularly from discrimination and racism and thus have less chance to access employment, often are forced to live in worse physical environments and have poorer access to essential services; 9. Living in a remote or very disadvantaged community where access to services is worse. Consequences of Poverty Poverty has far reaching consequences on the society.  People suffering from poverty will generally have a low standard of living.  They are not able to afford education and lack access to health care and education. 64  This will lead to a low quality of human capital and thus compromise economic growth.  Poverty takes a toll on poor children‘s development. For example, poverty causes malnutrition which would affect the development of a child‘s mental thinking and healthy body.  Poverty may also lead to political instability and lead to increased risk of war, mass emigration of population and terrorism.  Soil degradation through erosion, overuse or use of chemical products, overgrazing, or salinization resulting from inadequate water management entail loss of income base  Deforestation through inappropriate use of wood and other resources for cooking, heating, housing and crafts, thus depriving vulnerable groups from essential goods and accelerating both the downwards spiral of poverty and environmental degradation  Poor waste disposal  Pollution - Air, water and soil pollution create health hazards in addition to damaging economic assets. Water pollution - which results from insufficient access to information on proper management - sterilizes soils, endangers fisheries, creates health problems, and takes a higher toll on the poor.  Rural-urban migration hence overcrowding in urban centres  Global warming and climate change- Air pollution generated by inappropriate production techniques used by poor people out of lack of better knowledge or lack of capital to invest in environment friendly technologies, is also responsible for global warming and climate change which poor countries cannot afford to challenge. The links between poverty and environment  Livelihoods. The poor often depend directly on a diversity of natural resources and ecosystem services for their livelihoods. They are the most severely affected when the environment is degraded or their access to natural resources is limited or denied.  Health. The poor suffer most from unclean water, indoor air pollution and exposure to toxic chemicals. Environmental risk factors are a major source of health problems in developing countries.  Vulnerability. The poor are particularly vulnerable to environmental hazards (such as floods, prolonged drought and attacks by crop pests) and environment-related conflict, and have the least means to cope when they occur. 65 Poverty is therefore, a cause of and consequence of environmental degradation” Because Poverty leads to:  Soil degradation through erosion, overuse or use of chemical products, overgrazing, or salinization resulting from inadequate water management entail loss of income base  Deforestation through inappropriate use of wood and other resources for cooking, heating, housing and crafts, thus depriving vulnerable groups from essential goods and accelerating both the downwards spiral of poverty and environmental degradation  Poor waste disposal  Pollution - Air, water and soil pollution create health hazards in addition to damaging economic assets. Water pollution - which results from insufficient access to information on proper management - sterilizes soils, endangers fisheries, creates health problems, and takes a higher toll on the poor.  Rural-urban migration hence overcrowding in urban centres  Global warming and climate change- Air pollution generated by inappropriate production techniques used by poor people out of lack of better knowledge or lack of capital to invest in environment friendly technologies, is also responsible for global warming and climate change which poor countries cannot afford to challenge. Reflection questions: 1. ―As the quality of life increases, the demand on natural resources also rises.‖ Explain the impact of development on natural resources. 2. Briefly explain the following concepts in relation to sustainable development: i. Equity ii. Food security 3. ―The deterioration of Kenya‘s environment has been blamed on rapid population growth in the last 2 decades.‖ Discuss the relevance of this statement. 66 TOPIC 5: INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Objectives: The learner should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of indigenous knowledge b.Show how indigenous knowledge is important in ecological management c. Identify the various institutions in Kenya that are responsible for the management of natural resources. d.Explain the role of organizations in Natural Resource Management Development can have major impacts on the environment including: soil erosion, degrading soils and waterways, altering landscape and destroying biodiversity and habitat. In addition to harming the environment, these impacts can/have significant economic costs and negatively affect human health. In most rural areas the governing (regulatory) mechanisms of local institutions have often had an influence on sustainable natural resource use Institutions (both formal and informal) provide one of the crucial keys to sound environmental and resource management. There is growing concern in Kenya and globally that many forms of development activities cause damage to the environment. Recognizing the importance of NRs and the environment in general, the Kenyan Government has put in place wide range of policy, institutional and legislative framework to address the major causes of environmental degradation and negative impacts on ecosystems emanating from industrial and economic development programme It is now accepted that development projec...
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